Kenya Poverty Issues

Chapter Two

Literature Review

• 2.0. Introduction

This chapter will mainly focus on the relationship between gender and the environment. Literature on issues pertinent to forest resources and other natural resources use, conservation and management in many parts of Africa and elsewhere is extensive [Bruce A. Byers: 1996]. Academic researchers, universities, government agencies, individual scholars have studied and tested a number of approaches in this regard.  This literature review seeks to re-examine the debate on gender and its role in the environmental degradation perspectives and the lessons to be learned from the experiences.

• 2.1. Gender and environment

Over recent decades, deepening concern about the environment has had a widespread effect on social behaviour and thinking. There are ever-increasing demands from people generally, and from young people in particular, for a higher quality environment. Also apparent is a growing awareness around the world of the close relationship between environmental problems and those of an economic, demographic and social nature, and of the need to take an integrated approach to solving them (ECLAC, 1991; 1992 and 1997a).  This combines with a perception that, as the century draws to an end, global society is witnessing the exhaustion of a development style that is unsustainable in the medium and long term, one which has been characterized by its harmfulness as regards natural systems and its unfairness as regards people, and which is the outcome of major structural inadequacies in the growth strategies adopted (ECLAC, 1991; 1992 and 1997a). As knowledge about the ways in which different groups of women participate in development has increased, so the connection between gender, the environment and sustainability has grown in importance. Likewise, this knowledge has led to the conviction that a systematic effort is required if environmental issues linked with social and gender equity are to be incorporated into the development process. This is because environmental problems unquestionably reveal flaws in the socio-political and economic system, and the consequences for the environment of the way in which humanity uses the planet’s resources are conditioned by the types of relationship that exist between individuals and the different segments of society.  These reflections lead on to the consideration that the human and environmental dimensions of development are inseparable, and that this link is a result both of the aggregate effect of social relationships and actions as they influence the natural ecology, and of the impact of environmental changes on society (Gallopín, 1986).

• 2.2. Sustainability

The idea of sustainability was originally developed within a biological and physical framework, in response to the realization that natural resources were finite. From the postwar period to the beginning of the 1970s, world concern was centered on economic growth and the accumulation of physical and financial capital, with technological progress providing the symbol for this process. But in adopting this development style, the importance of other crucial aspects such as human resources and natural, institutional and cultural systems was underestimated (ECLAC, 1991).  The idea is now being applied in a wider context, and this has often led to confusion in the way it is used, as the policy implications that derive from it in the form in which it was originally employed (physical stocks regarded in isolation) do not give the right signals when they are applied in a different context. As a result, there has been a gradual move towards a more inclusive and comprehensive approach in which social, political and economic aspects are considered alongside natural resources issues, all of these being integrated into a common objective: sustainable development (Brundtland Commission, 1987). This broadened approach is beginning to take shape in the international   debate which was initiated with the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in 1972. This meeting tackled the problems of poverty and the welfare of the world’s population, dealing with aspects such as housing, water, health, hygiene and nutrition.

The stress, however, was placed on the technical aspects of contamination caused by industrialization, population growth and urbanization, with emphasis being laid on the undesirable consequences of these processes. The approach taken to the environmental crisis was thus a markedly first world one (Brundtland Commission, 1987).  Certain authors maintain that one of the problems is the lack of consensus over how to measure welfare in social terms. For this reason, more complex definitions have been put forward. For example, Robert Ayres notes that “sustainability is conceived of as a process of change in which the use of resources, the management of investments, the direction of technological development and institutional change are in harmony with and enhance our current and future potential to satisfy human needs and aspirations” (cited in Arizpe, Paz and Velásquez and others, 1993). Another reading, to some extent complementary, is the one put forward by Arizpe, Paz and Velázquez (1993), when they suggest that the concept of sustainability is like that of democracy: difficult and elusive, but indispensable to provide a point on the future horizon at which to aim. Again in common with democracy, it is a way of approaching the world that has to be built upon the realities of everyday life, alongside implementation of public policies designed to carry forward both processes. To this should be added the interconnection between them: sustainable development needs a democratic political culture within which people can improve their quality of life in an equitable way and cooperate in addressing the problems raised by the resources issue.

•  2.3. Sustainable development, the environment and gender

In international policy, the linkage between the interests of women and of the environment in conjunction with development is a recent one. For example, in the Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972), women are not even mentioned and the term “man” is constantly used in its general sense of “human being”. Likewise, the first World Conservation Strategy (IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1980) did not touch on social issues to any great extent, and women were only mentioned on a few occasions and then in relation to issues traditionally associated with them such as illiteracy and population growth. Only in 1984 did the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) set up a women’s advisory group (Senior Women’s Advisory Group on Sustainable Development), which began to study and advise on the Programme in terms of the connection that exists between the problems of exclusion as this affects women, the roles they fulfill and the damage done to the environment in the course of development, and the ways to deal with both situations.

In the Report of the Brundtland Commission (1987) mention was made of the crucial roles played by women as regards population and food safety, but no conclusions were put forward on the gender-environment relationship, nor were any specific recommendations made. Nonetheless, this document defined and delineated sustainable development, and was the first step towards debating the subject from this standpoint. It also led to the original view of women as victims of environmental damage being replaced by a conception of women as possessors of knowledge and skills that would enable them to act as effective administrators of the environment.

Nonetheless, when the first meeting to prepare for the Earth Summit was held in 1990, there was no mention in the official programme of the role of women in preserving the environment and the different ways in which they participate in development processes. The subsequent incorporation of women into the programme was to be largely a result of meetings held, under the auspices of the UNEP, in the four regions of the developing world: Africa (Harare, Zimbabwe, 1989), the Arab countries (Tunis, 1990), Asia (Bangkok, 1991) and Latin America and the Caribbean (Quito, 1991), where participants submitted the information then available on the main environmental problems of each region and their effects on the female population, while at the same time submitting proposals to be included in the debate undertaken at the Conference.

The work carried out culminated, before Rio, in two meetings held in Miami in 1991: the Global Assembly on Women and the Environment: Partners in Life and the World Congress of Women for a Healthy Planet.  At these events the situation was analyzed in detail and recommendations for the United Nations Conference were decided on. Together with the proposals there were questions about the current development paradigm and a call to introduce changes that would ensure sustainability and a development style focused on the needs and rights of people. The consensus arrived at was presented in the document Agenda 21 for Women’s Action, which is an ideological framework providing a springboard for action, and in which participative democracy, universal access to information, ethical positions and full participation by women on an equal footing with men are put forward as the bases for change.

Lobbying carried out by the different women’s groups and networks, combined with growing international awareness of the problems of gender and the environment, resulted in principle 20 of the Rio Declaration, which says: “Women play a leading role in environmental management and in development. For that reason it is indispensable for them to participate fully if sustainable development is to be achieved” (United Nations, 1992). In Programme 21, which sets out the priorities for action to achieve sustainable development into the next century, although women are referred to throughout the 40 sections dealing with particular sectors and inter-sectoral links, it is section 24 that is devoted specifically to dealing with them. In this section, the focus is on the crucial role they play in bringing about changes to the current model of consumption and production, and it is emphasized that the active involvement of women in political and economic decision-making is necessary if all the Summit resolutions are to be successfully.

By the time of the Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development and Peace, held in Beijing, and of the NGO Forum, held in parallel, the linkage between gender, the environment and sustainable development had come to prominence.  In point K of the Platform for Action, specific reference was made to the environment, and measures and strategic objectives were decided on, the central themes addressed by these being: the situation of poverty that affects many women, the need for them to participate actively in decision-making on matters relating to the environment at every level, and incorporation of gender issues into policies and programs for sustainable development (United Nations, 1995b). In the first six months of 1997, with the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development concluding its fifth year of existence, there were a substantial number of meetings to monitor fulfillment of the commitments accepted at Rio and implementation of Programme 21, and in June the Earth Summit + 5 was held in New York. In general terms, this evaluation revealed that although some progress has been made in terms of environmental protection, there are serious deficiencies in the process of orchestrating activities, and that changes in economic and political structures have not led to significant progress in overcoming poverty and achieving equity. Again, another of the subjects still to be dealt with is that of financial and technological aid from industrialized countries to developing ones to enable them to implement activities and processes that lead to sustainable development.

In this same process, the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women once again highlighted the need for a gender-based approach to be incorporated into the mainstream of development, as well as into the design and implementation of environmental programs and policies, including those measures that came out of Programme 21 and the Beijing Platform for Action, both nationally and locally (United Nations, 1997a). Complementary to this is the contention, in the Report of the High-level Advisory Board on Sustainable Development for the 1997 inquiry into the Rio commitments, that one of the prerequisites for securing positive changes to bring about sustainable development is action to secure greater independence for and involvement by women (United Nations, 1997b, p.8).

Caren Levy points out (1992), despite all these recommendations there is a curious resemblance between the fate of gender issues and that of environmental issues: both rose to prominence thanks to the activities and agitation of particular movements, the feminist and environmental movements, and departments, projects, and specific programs were brought into being for each, with the result that they were left outside the development mainstream, with few human and material resources being allocated to them. Likewise, it is often seen that “women’s” and “environmental” initiatives compete with one another for the few resources available, rather than being complementary (IDB, 1996).

In the face of this, there is often a tendency to emphasize the institutional nature of the problem, i.e., to bring about coordination of strategies and efforts between those responsible for environmental projects and those dealing with the subject of gender (Vega, 1996). However, the systemic vision that arises out of the notion of sustainable development goes beyond this. It requires a change of approach and mentality so that awareness of the environment can be informed by an understanding of the implications of social equity, and so that those who set themselves to achieve social and gender equity, equality and justice can forge new kinds of relationships with nature. Given the difficulty of the task, with both subjects cutting across all sectors of planning and development as well as being interrelated between themselves, the challenge is to identify both those areas where the two sets of issues are complementary and those where they are in conflict, if progress is to be made in terms of public policy proposals.

• 2.4. Ecofeminism

The ecofeminist approach takes a number of forms, but two can be distinguished in general terms: social ecofeminism and cultural ecofeminism (Plumwood, 1992, p. 10). What will be given at this stage, however, are the points that both forms have in common, and the main tenets of the latter, as it has had an important influence on the work of activists promoting the subject of women and the environment inside both the feminist and the ecology movements.

The distinguishing feature of ecofeminism is the way it conceptualizes the relationship of women with nature, maintaining that there is a strong link between the two, and defending a return to a “femininity principle” involving harmony, sustainability and diversity (Shiva, 1989). This position leads, on the one hand, to the affirmation that all women have a special relationship with nature, and “woman” is considered as a unitary concept and reality, centered on the role of women as mothers and nurturers of life, without acknowledging the differences that exist within this category due to ethnic background, social class and age, among other factors. Again, it is maintained that the experiences of women, be they biological, as determined by the female body and its functions (pregnancy, childbirth, lactation, menstruation), or cultural (the care and bringing up of children), give them a different “natural mindset”. In turn, the closeness of women to nature supposedly gives them a “special” knowledge that will enable them to save the planet (Shiva, 1989), and their “natural” propensity to protect the environment is an extension of their role as careers in the family group and the community.

Critics retort, however, that this responsibility as “saviours” and “privileged careers” is delegated to women without any specific consideration as to whether they do or do not have the resources needed to fulfill it (Leach, 1991, p. 15). Furthermore, this point of view is unsatisfactory insofar as it is static and does not take account of historical changes and the impact of these on the dynamics of interaction between people and their environment, while the construction of gender, i.e., the fact of being a woman at a particular point in space and time, is not contextualized in a social, historical and material way.

Again, from ecofeminism comes the contention that the assertion of control over nature and over women has been an integrated, parallel process, historically connected (Mies and Shiva, 1993).  This, it is maintained, is due to the effects of the patriarchal structure and the perceptive dualism that subordinates nature to culture and the feminine to the masculine, so that women are socially perceived as being close to nature, and as a result there are connections of an ideological type, based on a system of ideas and representations, values and beliefs, between the oppression that they experience and the exploitation of the natural system. With this approach, women are cast as “victims” of development (Shiva, 1989).

• 2.5. Women and the environment

The movement known as “women and the environment” forms part of the strand of thought and action called “women in development”, which marked a stage of thinking and action in the field of development projects and programmes that, in many cases, is still current today, and that centers around women and their needs as individuals and groups (Rico, 1993a). Again, the “women and the environment” viewpoint has had a large impact among NGOs, and indeed it is in the documents for the NGO Forum held in Nairobi on the occasion of the 1985 World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the United Nations Decade for Women that many of the tenets arising from this line of thought, later to be developed by different authors, are to be found.

The “women and the environment” approach stresses the potential of women’s role as “day-to-day administrators” of natural resources (Dankelman and Davidson, 1989), with analysis being carried out mainly at the micro-social level. Much is made of their vulnerability to environmental change due to their dependence on these resources, and emphasis is put on the need for sustainable development initiatives to support the contributions made by women to managing and preserving the environment (Collins, 1991). For example, it is maintained that women are the most affected by the energy crisis, and that they should therefore be considered as being the best placed to tackle and resolve this crisis (Dankelman, 1985). With this approach, the focus is on the special characteristics of women as “custodians of the environment”, while at the same time they are regarded as the “most valuable resource, and the most neglected one” (Linggard and Moberg, 1990). It is this that provides the rationale for giving them particular consideration in environmental projects and programmes, since they are an important “instrument” of environmental protection in view of the different forms of organization that they have developed to respond to environmental change, and of the successful experiments they have carried out (Dankelman and Davidson, 1989). This is also used to justify the claim that more should be invested in them, their education in particular, as the chief resource for improving the environment. This way of looking at women, although it values the roles they play, reflects a viewpoint that takes account neither of the way social roles are determined in terms of gender and ideology, nor of the fact that “just as it is not they who are responsible for the world environmental crisis, so it is neither feasible nor realistic to expect them to resolve it on their own” (Sen and Grown, 1988).

• 2.6. Gender, the environment and sustainable development

The role of women and men is a key factor in the processes that are recognized as being agents of intermediation in the relationship between sustainable development and the environment, such as population growth, migration, family organization of labour, patterns of production and consumption and unequal distribution of economic, political and technological power. Seen from this viewpoint, their participation is characterized not only by their status as “victims” of environmental changes as a result of their being more vulnerable than men to the negative impact of these changes, but by their understanding, use and consumption of natural resources, and by the experience and creativity they bring to community work, which enable them to suggest mechanisms to achieve sustainability. In the same way, cases where women are instrumental in damaging the environment are also identified. The way in which male-female interaction affects and is affected by environmental change. Discussion about this is centered around the gender-environment relationship in terms not only of those aspects associated with the reproductive behaviour of women or the situation of poverty in which they find themselves, but also of the key role they play in production activities, i.e., of their economic role, and of their activities within group initiatives that aim to meet people’s needs locally (Arizpe and others, 1994; Paolisso, 1995; Rico, 1996a and 1996b; Vega, 1996).

The structure of gender identities in different groups of women and men, in terms of the roles, subjectivities and socially constructed and culturally validated perceptions that place individuals in a particular relationship to environmental change and processes of social, political and economic transformation within countries and the interconnections between them (Joekes and others, 1995; Leach, 1991 and 1992; Arizpe, Paz and Velásquez, 1993; and Valdés, 1992).  The ideology that sustains and defines the subordinate position of women as against men in our society and the obstacles that women face as a result in obtaining access to and control of environmental resources, and in exercising power in decision making processes dealing with the direction of sustainable development (Jackson, 1993; Aguilar, 1996; Velázquez, 1994 and 1996).

Chapter Three

Research Methodologies

• 3.0. Introduction

The purpose of this qualitative study is to examine the role of gender on the environmental degradation and the mitigation measures. This chapter will describe the study, including descriptions of the survey development, subjects, sample selection and data gathering, data analysis, and limitations of the study.

• 3.1. Research Design

The study will adopt descriptive survey as a method of collecting information by using a standardized form of interview schedule and administering a questionnaire to a sample of individuals. This method is most appropriate for collecting information about respondents’ opinion, view and perception about gender and the role it plays in environmental degradation. Both the secondary and primary data will be used in the analysis.

The design is also suitable because it gives an in-depth description of the phenomena in their existing setting. This fits well with wives, husbands and children who will participate in the study while in their respective localities.

Descriptive survey is also preferred because it is economical in collecting data from over a large sample with high data turn over (Kothari, 2004).

The study will use both qualitative and quantitative approaches since the research will require an analysis of gender issues that results to environmental degradation. This will be an appropriate variable in collecting and summarizing data that will be used in analyzing causes and effects of gender on environment and some mitigation measures necessary. It is worth noting that the descriptive survey is aimed at producing statistical information of gender and its role on the environmental degradation.

• 3.2. Variables

Being both a qualitative and quantitative research, this proposed study has both dependent and independent variables. The dependent variable that the research seeks to investigate is environmental degradation. On the other hand, this proposed study will seek to establish the relationship between the dependent variable (environmental degradation) and determining variables such as gender; education, culture, power and participation, health and production behavior.

• 3.3. Site of the Study

            The study will be conducted in Eldama Ravine Division in Baringo County, Rift Valley Province. Purposive sampling was instrumental for selecting Baringo County among many counties in Rift Valley province. The main reasons for selecting this site was because; first, over the years there has been large environmental degradation in the county and secondly the site is easily accessible considering the financial and time constraints.

• 3.4. Target Population

The study will mainly focus on residence of Eldama Ravine Division Baringo County. Eldama Ravine comprises of approximately 17 villages with an average population estimate of 500,000 people. However, owing to the limitations of research, only a fraction of the entire population will provide the needed standards to constitute the population of the study. The subjects of the study were drawn from all the 17 villages. The respondents included in proposed study will be men and women who are well equipped with environmental issues.

• 3.5 Sample, Sampling Technique and Size  

Sample selection depends on the population size, its homogeneity, the sample media and its cost of use, and the degree of precision required (Salant & Dillman, 1994, p. 54). Because of the sensitive issues surrounding gender and environmental degradation among the Kalenjin community, there was no attempt to restrict the list of potential subjects in anyway, except that have to have some concrete knowledge about the relationship of gender and environmental degradation.. The people selected to participate in the sample must be selected at random; they must have an equal (or known) chance of being selected. Salant and Dillman (1994) observed that a prerequisite to sample selection is to define the target population as narrowly as possible. In this study, a simple random sample will be used. The study will settle on a sample size of 100 of which men and women will be indiscriminately chosen.

• 3.6. Research Instruments

The following instruments will be used during the proposed research study; questionnaires, computer, and charts. Questionnaires will be used to collect the data from the respondents. The collected data set will be recorded and reported using computers (laptops in particular). Charts and geographical maps will be significant in providing a guide and direction concerning the location of the site. In addition, writing materials such as field note books and pens will be used in recording the field information.

3.6.1. Questionnaires

The researcher will develop two types of questionnaires, open ended and closed ended. Open ended will be used by women as it encourages and give depth of responses thereby adding quality to data collected. It also captures opinions from the respondents. Adults also have the ability to read, comprehend and give opinions. Closed ended will be used by students as they are easy to compete and analyze. However, they are not in depth. They are often one word answer fixed responses. Questionnaire is ideal for this study as recommended by other researchers who noted that questionnaires are commonly used to obtain important information about a population (Mugenda, 1999). Each item in the questionnaires is developed to focus specific research questions of the study.

• 3.7. Pilot Study

Pre-testing will be done in one village however; it will now not take part in the main study. Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) note that pilot testing is a very important step in any study because it helps in refining research instruments so that they capture the intended information. The main reason here is to ascertain the validity and reliability of the research instruments and make necessary adjustments.

• 3.8. Validity and Reliability of the Study

According to Coolican (1994) validity refers to whether a measure is really measuring what it intends to measure. According to Cooper & Schindler (1998), reliability refers to being able to secure consistence results with repeated measures of the same person with the same instrument. In this study, the pre-test subjects will be encouraged to make comments and give suggestions concerning the subject. The process of pretesting will be repeated in the same village after two weeks. Besides, the extent of validity and reliability of this proposed study will heavily rely on the response and honesty of the respondents.

• 3.9. Data Collection Procedure

Research permission will be sought from the National Council for Science and Technology (NCST), District Gender and Children Office and Local Administration departments identified for study. The data collection instruments will include questionnaires and personal interviews for those who will be able to write and those who are unable to write respectively. The study will use publications from KBS, newspapers, and newsletters to collect secondary data.

• 3.10. Data Analysis Procedure

The data collected will be analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Qualitative data will be analyzed using grounded theory methods as described by Strauss and Corbin (1998). Open coding was used to initially name and categorize the data, and selective coding was used to develop a more general framework. The study will use frequency count, mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values of variables. The hypotheses formulated for this study will tested with the use of logistic regression. This will be used to examine the relationship between dependent and independent variables. According to Field (2000), logistic regression is multiple regression but with an outcome variable that is a categorical dichotomy and predictor variables that are continuous or categorical.

Quantitative data analysis will be done to generate frequencies percentages and means. The resulting quantitative data will then be interpreted using simple statistical method. The questionnaire will be analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 17. The data collected through questionnaire will be classified on the basis of common attributes then tallied to obtain statistical frequencies, tabulated and finally analyzed using descriptive statistics. According to Kothari (2004), this helps to collapse large volume of quantitative data in numerical form for ease of statistical interpretation. Interviewers will be analyzed using Pearson product moment correlation (r) to determine the relationship between the socio-economic factors and wastage.

• 3.11. Data Management and Ethical Consideration

The collected data will be managed through the following methods; Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). SPSS is preferred in quantitative data management since it is easy to administer. Besides, Microsoft management system e.g. excel will be significant in managing and controlling quantitative research outcomes.

This proposed research will place ethical consideration to confidentiality of the respondents’ response. This research will adhere to the constitutional and legal frameworks as stipulated in the Gender and Children’s act.

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